Break on Through to the Other Side Classic Christian Art

Hans Holbein the Younger's Noli me tangere a relatively rare Protestant oil painting of Christ from the Reformation period. Information technology is modest, and generally naturalistic in style, avoiding iconic elements similar the halo, which is barely discernible.

The Protestant Reformation during the 16th century in Europe almost entirely rejected the existing tradition of Catholic fine art, and very often destroyed as much of information technology every bit it could attain. A new artistic tradition developed, producing far smaller quantities of art that followed Protestant agendas and diverged drastically from the southern European tradition and the humanist art produced during the Loftier Renaissance. The Lutheran churches, as they developed, accustomed a express role for larger works of art in churches,^{[1] [2]} and also encouraged prints and book illustrations. Calvinists remained steadfastly opposed to fine art in churches, and suspicious of small printed images of religious subjects, though generally fully accepting secular images in their homes.

In plough, the Catholic Counter-Reformation both reacted against and responded to Protestant criticisms of art in Roman Catholicism to produce a more stringent style of Catholic art. Protestant religious fine art both embraced Protestant values and assisted in the proliferation of Protestantism, but the amount of religious art produced in Protestant countries was hugely reduced. Artists in Protestant countries diversified into secular forms of art like history painting, landscape painting, portrait painting and withal life.

Art and the Reformation [edit]

The Protestant Reformation was a religious motility that occurred in Western Europe during the 16th century that resulted in a divide in Christianity between Roman Catholics and Protestants. This movement "created a North-South split in Europe, where mostly Northern countries became Protestant, while Southern countries remained Catholic."^[3]

The Reformation produced two main branches of Protestantism; one was the Evangelical Lutheran churches, which followed the teachings of Martin Luther, and the other the Reformed Churches, which followed the ideas of John Calvin and Huldrych Zwingli. Out of these branches grew 3 main sects, the Lutheran tradition, as well as the Continental Reformed and Anglican traditions, the latter 2 post-obit the Reformed (Calvinist) faith.^[4] Lutherans and Reformed Christians had unlike views regarding religious imagery.^{[5] [2]}

Martin Luther in Deutschland allowed and encouraged the display of a restricted range of religious imagery in churches, seeing the Evangelical Lutheran Church as a continuation of the "ancient, apostolic church".^[2] The utilize of images was one of the issues where Luther strongly opposed the more radical Andreas Karlstadt. For a few years Lutheran altarpieces like the Last Supper past the younger Cranach were produced in Deutschland, particularly by Luther'due south friend Lucas Cranach, to replace Catholic ones, oft containing portraits of leading reformers as the apostles or other protagonists, but retaining the traditional delineation of Jesus. As such, "Lutheran worship became a circuitous ritual choreography set in a richly furnished church building interior."^[1] Lutherans continued the use of the crucifix every bit it highlighted their high view of the Theology of the Cross.^{[two] [6]} Stories grew up of "indestructible" images of Luther, that had survived fires, past divine intervention.^[7] Thus, for Lutherans, "the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious epitome."^[8]

On the other mitt, in that location was a wave of iconoclasm, or the destruction of religious imagery. This began very early in the Reformation, when students in Erfurt destroyed a wooden altar in the Franciscan friary in December 1521.^[9] Subsequently, Reformed Christianity showed consistent hostility to religious images, every bit idolatry, especially sculpture and large paintings. Book illustrations and prints were more adequate, because they were smaller and more private. Reformed leaders, particularly Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin, actively eliminated imagery from churches within the control of their followers, and regarded the slap-up majority of religious images as idolatrous.^[ten] Early Calvinists were fifty-fifty suspicious of portraits of clergy; Christopher Hales (shortly to be ane of the Marian exiles) tried to have portraits of 6 divines sent to him from Zurich, and felt it necessary to explain his motives in a letter of 1550: "this is not done ....with a view to making idols of you lot; they are desired for the reasons which I have mentioned, and not for the sake of honour or veneration".^[11]

The devastation was frequently extremely divisive and traumatic within communities, an unmistakable concrete manifestation, often imposed from above, that could not exist ignored. Information technology was merely for this reason that reformers favoured a single dramatic coup, and many premature acts in this line sharply increased subsequent hostility betwixt Catholics and Calvinists in communities – for it was generally at the level of the city, town or village that such actions occurred, except in England and Scotland.

Only reformers oftentimes felt impelled by strong personal convictions, as shown by the case of Frau Göldli, on which Zwingli was asked to advise. She was a Swiss lady who had once made a promise to Saint Apollinaris that if she recovered from an illness she would donate an image of the saint to a local convent, which she did. Later she turned Protestant, and feeling she must contrary what she now saw as a wrong action, she went to the convent church building, removed the statue and burnt it. Prosecuted for blasphemy, she paid a small fine without complaint, merely flatly refused to pay the additional sum the court ordered be paid to the convent to replace the statue, putting her at risk of serious penalties. Zwingli's letter advised trying to pay the nuns a larger sum on condition they did non replace the statue, but the eventual issue is unknown.^[12] By the terminate of his life, after iconoclastic shows of strength became a characteristic of the early phases of the French Wars of Religion, fifty-fifty Calvin became alarmed and criticised them, realizing that they had get counter-productive.^[13]

Daniel Hisgen'southward paintings are mostly cycles on the parapets of Lutheran church galleries. Here the Cosmos (left) to the Annunciation can be seen.

Subjects prominent in Catholic art other than Jesus and events in the Bible, such as Mary and saints were given much less accent or disapproved of in Protestant theology. As a event, in much of northern Europe, the Church almost ceased to commission figurative art, placing the dictation of content entirely in the easily of the artists and lay consumers. Calvinism even objected to non-religious funerary art, such every bit the heraldry and effigies beloved of the Renaissance rich.^[14] Where in that location was religious fine art, iconic images of Christ and scenes from the Passion became less frequent, as did portrayals of the saints and clergy. Narrative scenes from the Bible, peculiarly every bit book illustrations and prints, and, later, moralistic depictions of modern life were preferred. Both Cranachs painted emblematic scenes setting out Lutheran doctrines, in particular a series on Law and Gospel. Daniel Hisgen, a German language Rococo painter of the 18th century in Upper Hesse, specialized in cycles of biblical paintings decorating the front end of the gallery parapet in Lutheran churches with an upper gallery, a less prominent position that satisfied Lutheran scruples. Wooden organ cases were as well often painted with similar scenes to those in Cosmic churches.

Lutherans strongly defended their existing sacred art from a new wave of Calvinist-on-Lutheran iconoclasm in the 2nd half of the century, as Calvinist rulers or urban center authorities attempted to impose their will on Lutheran populations in the "2nd Reformation" of about 1560–1619.^{[ii] [15]} Against the Reformed, Lutherans exclaimed: "You black Calvinist, you give permission to smash our pictures and hack our crosses; we are going to smash you and your Calvinist priests in return".^[2] The Beeldenstorm, a large and very disorderly wave of Calvinist mob destruction of Cosmic images and church fittings that spread through the Low Countries in the summer of 1566 was the largest outbreak of this sort, with drastic political repercussions.^[sixteen] This entrada of Calvinist iconoclasm "provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs" in Germany and "antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox" in the Baltic region.^[17] Similar patterns to the German actions, but with the add-on of encouragement and sometimes finance from the national government, were seen in Anglican England in the English Civil War and English language Commonwealth in the next century, when more impairment was done to fine art in medieval parish churches than during the English Reformation.

A major theological difference between Protestantism and Catholicism is the question of transubstantiation, or the literal transformation of the Communion wafer and wine into the trunk and claret of Christ, though both Lutheran and Reformed Christians affirmed the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the sometime as a sacramental union and the latter as a pneumatic presence.^[18] Protestant churches that were non participating in the iconoclasm often selected as altarpieces scenes depicting the Last Supper. This helped the worshippers to think their theology behind the Eucharist, as opposed to Catholic churches, which frequently chose crucifixion scenes for their altarpieces to remind the worshippers that the sacrifice of Christ and the sacrifice of the Mass were 1 and the aforementioned, via the literal transformation of the Eucharist.

The Protestant Reformation also capitalized on the popularity of printmaking in northern Europe. Printmaking allowed images to be mass-produced and widely available to the public at low cost. This allowed for the widespread availability of visually persuasive imagery. The Protestant church was therefore able, as the Catholic Church building had been doing since the early on 15th century, to bring their theology to the people, and religious education was brought from the church into the homes of the common people, thereby forming a direct link between the worshippers and the divine.

There was also a trigger-happy propaganda war fought partly with popular prints past both sides; these were often highly scurrilous caricatures of the other side and their doctrines. On the Protestant side, portraits of the leading reformers were pop, and their likenesses sometimes represented the Apostles and other figures in Biblical scenes such as the Concluding Supper.

Genre and landscape [edit]

Afterward the early years of the reformation, artists in Protestant areas painted far fewer religious subjects for public display, although there was a conscious effort to develop a Protestant iconography of Bible illustration in volume illustrations and prints. In the early on Reformation artists, specially Cranach the Elder and Younger and Holbein, fabricated paintings for churches showing the leaders of the reformation in ways very similar to Cosmic saints. Later Protestant taste turned from the display in churches of religious scenes, although some continued to be displayed in homes. In that location was too a reaction against large images from classical mythology, the other manifestation of high fashion at the time. This brought about a style that was more directly related to accurately portraying the present times. The traditions of landscapes and genre paintings that would fully flower in the 17th century began during this period.

Peter Bruegel (1525–1569) of Flanders is the great genre painter of his time, who worked for both Cosmic and Protestant patrons. In most of his paintings, even when depicting religious scenes, most space is given to landscape or peasant life in 16th century Flanders. Bruegel's Wedding Feast, portrays a Flemish-peasant hymeneals dinner in a barn, which makes no reference to any religious, historical or classical events, and only gives insight into the everyday life of the Flemish peasant. Another great painter of his age, Lucas van Leyden (1489–1533), is known mostly for his engravings, such every bit The Milkmaid, which depicts peasants with milk cows. This engraving, from 1510, well before the Reformation, contains no reference to religion or classicism, although much of his other work features both.

Bruegel was also an accomplished mural painter. Frequently Bruegel painted agricultural landscapes, such as Summer from his famous set of the seasons, where he shows peasants harvesting wheat in the state, with a few workers taking a lunch pause under a nearby tree. This type of landscape painting, apparently void of religious or classical connotations, gave birth to a long line of northern European landscape artists, such as Jacob van Ruisdael.

With the keen evolution of the engraving and printmaking market in Antwerp in the 16th century, the public was provided with attainable and affordable images. Many artists provided drawings to book and print publishers, including Bruegel. In 1555 Bruegel began working for The Four Winds, a publishing house owned by Hieronymus Cock. The Four Winds provided the public with almost a grand etchings and engravings over ii decades. Between 1555 and 1563 Bruegel supplied Erect with near 40 drawings, which were engraved for the Flemish public.

The courtly style of Northern Mannerism in the 2d half of the century has been seen as partly motivated by the want of rulers in both the Holy Roman Empire and French republic to observe a style of fine art that could appeal to members of the courtly elite on both sides of the religious divide.^[19] Thus religious controversy had the rather ironic upshot of encouraging classical mythology in art, since though they might disapprove, fifty-fifty the most stern Calvinists could not credibly claim that 16th century mythological art really represented idolatry.

Council of Trent [edit]

During the Reformation a dandy divergence arose between the Catholic Church and the Protestant Reformers of the northward regarding the content and style of fine art work. The Catholic Church building viewed Protestantism and Reformed iconoclasm as a threat to the church building and in response came together at the Council of Trent to institute some of their ain reforms. The church felt that much religious art in Catholic countries (especially Italian republic) had lost its focus on religious field of study-matter, and became too interested in material things and decorative qualities. The council came together periodically between 1545 and 1563. The reforms that resulted from this council are what set the basis for what is known as the Counter-Reformation.

Italian painting after the 1520s, with the notable exception of the fine art of Venice, developed into Mannerism, a highly sophisticated fashion, striving for effect, that concerned many churchman as lacking appeal for the mass of the population. Church pressure to restrain religious imagery afflicted fine art from the 1530s and resulted in the decrees of the terminal session of the Council of Trent in 1563 including brusk and rather inexplicit passages concerning religious images, which were to accept great affect on the evolution of Catholic art. Previous Catholic Church councils had rarely felt the need to pronounce on these matters, dissimilar Orthodox ones which have often ruled on specific types of images.

Statements are often made along the lines of "The decrees of the Council of Trent stipulated that art was to be straight and compelling in its narrative presentation, that it was to provide an accurate presentation of the biblical narrative or saint'due south life, rather than adding incidental and imaginary moments, and that it was to encourage piety",^[20] but in fact the bodily decrees of the council were far less explicit than this, though all of these points were probably in line with their intentions. The very brusk passage dealing with art came merely in the final session in 1563, as a last minute and little-discussed add-on, based on a French typhoon. The decree confirmed the traditional doctrine that images simply represented the person depicted, and that veneration to them was paid to the person themself, not the image, and farther instructed that:

...every superstition shall be removed ... all lasciviousness be avoided; in such wise that figures shall non exist painted or adorned with a beauty exciting to lust... at that place exist naught seen that is disorderly, or that is unbecomingly or confusedly arranged, null that is profane, nothing indecorous, seeing that holiness becometh the business firm of God. And that these things may exist the more faithfully observed, the holy Synod ordains, that no 1 be allowed to place, or cause to exist placed, any unusual paradigm, in whatsoever identify, or church, howsoever exempted, except that prototype take been approved of past the bishop ...^[21]

The number of decorative treatments of religious subjects declined sharply, equally did "unbecomingly or confusedly arranged" Mannerist pieces, every bit a number of books, notably by the Flemish theologian Molanus, Saint Charles Borromeo and Cardinal Gabriele Paleotti, and instructions by local bishops, amplified the decrees, ofttimes going into infinitesimal particular on what was acceptable. Many traditional iconographies considered without acceptable scriptural foundation were in event prohibited, equally was any inclusion of classical pagan elements in religious fine art, and near all nudity, including that of the infant Jesus.^[22] According to the nifty medievalist Émile Mâle, this was "the death of medieval art".^[23]

Fine art and the Counter-Reformation [edit]

While Calvinists largely removed public art from religion and Reformed societies moved towards more "secular" forms of art which might be said to glorify God through the portrayal of the "natural beauty of His cosmos and by depicting people who were created in His image",^[24] Counter-Reformation Catholic church continued to encourage religious art, but insisted it was strictly religious in content, glorifying God and Catholic traditions, including the sacraments and the saints.^[25] Likewise, "Lutheran places of worship incorporate images and sculptures not only of Christ just also of biblical and occasionally of other saints likewise equally prominent decorated pulpits due to the importance of preaching, stained glass, ornate piece of furniture, magnificent examples of traditional and modernistic compages, carved or otherwise embellished altar pieces, and liberal use of candles on the altar and elsewhere."^[26] The master difference between Lutheran and Roman Catholic places of worship was the presence of the tabernacle in the latter.^[26]

Sydney Joseph Freedberg, who invented the term Counter-Maniera, cautions against connecting this more austere style in religious painting, which spread from Rome from near 1550, too straight with the decrees of Trent, as information technology pre-dates these by several years. He describes the decrees as "a codifying and official sanction of a temper that had come to be conspicuous in Roman civilization".^[27]

Scipione Pulzone'southward (1550–1598) painting of the Lamentation which was commissioned for the Church of the Gesù in 1589 is a Counter-Maniera work that gives a articulate sit-in of what the holy council was striving for in the new style of religious fine art. With the focus of the painting giving straight attention to the crucifixion of Christ, it complies with the religious content of the council and shows the story of the passion while keeping Christ in the image of the ideal human.

X years later the Council of Trent'due south decree Paolo Veronese was summoned past the Inquisition to explicate why his Last Supper, a huge canvas for the refectory of a monastery, contained, in the words of the Inquisition: "buffoons, drunken Germans, dwarfs and other such scurrilities" likewise as improvident costumes and settings, in what is indeed a fantasy version of a Venetian patrician banquet.^[28] Veronese was told that he must modify his indecorous painting within a three-month period – in fact he just changed the title to The Feast in the Business firm of Levi, all the same an episode from the Gospels, but a less doctrinally central 1, and no more was said.^[29] No dubiety any Protestant authorities would have been equally disapproving. The pre-existing decline in "donor portraits" (those who had paid for an altarpiece or other painting existence placed inside the painting) was as well accelerated; these become rare after the Council.

Repentance of Peter by El Greco, 1580–1586.

Further waves of "Counter-Reformation fine art" occurred when areas formerly Protestant were once more brought under Catholic dominion. The churches were normally empty of images, and such periods could represent a boom time for artists. The best known case is the new Spanish Netherlands (essentially modernistic Belgium), which had been the centre of Protestantism in the Netherlands only became (initially) exclusively Catholic after the Spanish collection the Protestants to the north, where they established the United Provinces. Rubens was 1 of a number of Flemish Baroque painters who received many commissions, and produced several of his best known works re-filling the empty churches.^[30] Several cities in France in the French wars of organized religion and in Federal republic of germany, Bohemia and elsewhere in the Thirty Years War saw like bursts of restocking.

The rather extreme pronouncement by a synod in Antwerp in 1610 that in future the central panels of altarpieces should simply show New Attestation scenes was certainly ignored in the cases of many paintings by Rubens and other Flemish artists (and in item the Jesuits continued to commission altarpieces centred on their saints), just nonetheless New Testament subjects probably did increase.^[31] Altarpieces became larger and more than easy to make out from a distance, and the big painted or gilded carved wooden altarpieces that were the pride of many northern belatedly medieval cities were often replaced with paintings.^[32]

Some subjects were given increased prominence to reflect Counter-Reformation emphases. The Repentance of Peter, showing the end of the episode of the Deprival of Peter, was non often seen before the Counter-Reformation, when it became popular as an assertion of the sacrament of Confession confronting Protestant attacks. This followed an influential book by the Jesuit Primal Robert Bellarmine (1542–1621). The epitome typically shows Peter in tears, as a half-length portrait with no other figures, often with hands clasped as at right, and sometimes "the cock" in the background; it was frequently coupled with a repentant Mary Magdalen, some other exemplar from Bellarmine'southward volume.^[33]

Every bit the Counter-Reformation grew stronger and the Catholic Church felt less threat from the Protestant Reformation, Rome once again began to assert its universality to other nations around the world. The religious order of the Jesuits or the Gild of Jesus, sent missionaries to the Americas, parts of Africa, Republic of india and eastern Asia and used the arts every bit an effective ways of articulating their message of the Catholic Church's dominance over the Christian faith. The Jesuits' impact was so profound during their missions of the fourth dimension that today very similar styles of art from the Counter-Reformation catamenia in Catholic Churches are found all over the world.

Despite the differences in approaches to religious art, stylistic developments passed most as quickly across religious divisions equally within the two "blocs". Artistically Rome remained in closer bear on with kingdom of the netherlands than with Kingdom of spain.

Notes [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} Spicer, Andrew (five December 2016). Lutheran Churches in Early Modernistic Europe. Taylor & Francis. p. 237. ISBN9781351921169. Every bit it developed in north-eastern Frg, Lutheran worship became a complex ritual choreography set in a richly furnished church interior. This much is evident from the groundwork of an epitaph painted in 1615 by Martin Schulz, destined for the Nikolaikirche in Berlin (see Figure 5.5.).
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Lamport, Mark A. (31 Baronial 2017). Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 138. ISBN9781442271593. Lutherans continued to worship in pre-Reformation churches, generally with few alterations to the interior. Information technology has even been suggested that in Deutschland to this 24-hour interval one finds more than ancient Marian altarpieces in Lutheran than in Catholic churches. Thus in Germany and in Scandinavia many pieces of medieval art and architecture survived. Joseph Leo Koerner has noted that Lutherans, seeing themselves in the tradition of the ancient, apostolic church building, sought to defend as well as reform the employ of images. "An empty, white-done church building proclaimed a wholly spiritualized cult, at odds with Luther'due south doctrine of Christ's real presence in the sacraments" (Koerner 2004, 58). In fact, in the 16th century some of the strongest opposition to devastation of images came not from Catholics but from Lutherans against Calvinists: "Y'all black Calvinist, you give permission to smash our pictures and hack our crosses; nosotros are going to smash you lot and your Calvinist priests in return" (Koerner 2004, 58). Works of art continued to be displayed in Lutheran churches, often including an imposing large crucifix in the sanctuary, a articulate reference to Luther's theologia crucis. ... In contrast, Reformed (Calvinist) churches are strikingly different. Usually unadorned and somewhat lacking in aesthetic appeal, pictures, sculptures, and ornate altar-pieces are largely absent-minded; there are few or no candles; and crucifixes or crosses are also generally absent.
3. ^ The Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Historicist and Causes of the Reformation. New Advent.
4. ^ Picken, Stuart D.B. (16 December 2011). Historical Dictionary of Calvinism. Scarecrow Press. p. i. ISBN9780810872240. While Germany and the Scandinavian countries adopted the Lutheran model of church and state, France, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Republic of hungary, what is at present the Czechia, and Scotland created Reformed Churches based, in varying ways, on the model Calvin prepare in Geneva. Although England pursued the Reformation ideal in its own way, leading to the germination of the Anglican Communion, the theology of the 30-Ix Articles of the Church building of England were heavily influenced past Calvinism.
5. ^ Nuechterlein, Jeanne Elizabeth (2000). Holbein and the Reformation of Art. Academy of California, Berkeley.
6. ^ Marquardt, Janet T.; Hashemite kingdom of jordan, Alyce A. (14 January 2009). Medieval Fine art and Architecture afterward the Middle Ages. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 71. ISBN9781443803984. In fact, Lutherans often justified their continued employ of medieval crucifixes with the same arguments employed since the Centre Ages, as is axiomatic from the instance of the altar of the Holy Cross in the Cistercian church of Doberan.
7. ^ Michalski, 89
8. ^ Dixon, C. Scott (ix March 2012). Battling the Reformation. John Wiley & Sons. p. 146. ISBN9781118272305. According to Koerner, who dwells on Lutheran art, the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image.
9. ^ Noble, 19, note 12
10. ^ Institutes, 1:11, section 7 on crosses
11. ^ Campbell, Lorne, Renaissance Portraits, European Portrait-Painting in the 14th, 15th and 16th Centuries, p. 193, 1990, Yale, ISBN 0300046758; Hales was the brother of John Hales (died 1572)
12. ^ Michalski, 87-88
13. ^ Michalski, 73-74
14. ^ Michalski, 72-73
15. ^ Michalski, 84. Google books
16. ^ Kleiner, Fred South. (i January 2010). Gardner's Art through the Ages: A Concise History of Western Art. Cengage Learning. p. 254. ISBN9781424069224. In an episode known equally the Peachy Iconoclasm, bands of Calvinists visited Catholic churches in the netherlands in 1566, shattering stained-drinking glass windows, smashing statues, and destroying paintings and other artworks they perceived every bit idolatrous.
17. ^ Marshall, Peter (22 October 2009). The Reformation. Oxford University Press. p. 114. ISBN9780191578885. Iconoclastic incidents during the Calvinist 'Second Reformation' in Germany provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs, while Protestant prototype-breaking in the Baltic region deeply antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox, a group with whom reformers might accept hoped to make common crusade.
18. ^ Mattox, Mickey L.; Roeber, A. 1000. (27 February 2012). Changing Churches: An Orthodox, Catholic, and Lutheran Theological Conversation. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 54. ISBN9780802866943. In this "sacramental union," Lutherans taught, the body and blood of Christ are and then truly united to the bread and wine of the Holy Communion that the two may be identified. They are at the same time body and blood, bread and wine. This divine food is given, more-over, not but for the strengthening of faith, nor simply every bit a sign of our unity in faith, nor merely as an assurance of the forgiveness of sin. Even more than, in this sacrament the Lutheran Christian receives the very body and blood of Christ precisely for the strengthening of the marriage of faith. The "real presence" of Christ in the Holy Sacrament is the means past which the union of religion, effected by God's Word and the sacrament of baptism, is strengthened and maintained. Intimate union with Christ, in other words, leads directly to the nigh intimate communion in his holy body and blood.
19. ^ Trevor-Roper, 98-101 on Rudolf, and Strong, Pt. 2, Affiliate iii on France, particularly pp. 98-101, 112-113.
20. ^ Art in Renaissance Italy. Paoletti, John T., and Gary M. Radke. Pg. 514.
21. ^ Text of the 25th decree of the Council of Trent
22. ^ Blunt Anthony, Artistic Theory in Italy, 1450-1660, chapter VIII, specially pp. 107-128, 1940 (refs to 1985 edn), OUP, ISBN 0-19-881050-four
23. ^ The decease of Medieval Art Extract from book by Émile Mâle
24. ^ Art of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Nosotro, Rit.
25. ^ The Fine art of the Counter Reformation. Metropolitan Museum of Art.
26. ^ ^{a b} Lamport, Mark A. (31 August 2017). Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 138. ISBN9781442271593.
27. ^ (Sidney) Freedberg, 427–428, 427 quoted
28. ^ "Transcript of Veronese's testimony". Archived from the original on 2009-09-29. Retrieved 2007-03-26 .
29. ^ David Rostand, Painting in Sixteenth-Century Venice: Titian, Veronese, Tintoretto, 2nd ed 1997, Cambridge UP ISBN 0-521-56568-5
30. ^ (David) Freedberg, throughout
31. ^ (David) Freedberg, 139-140
32. ^ (David) Freedberg, 141
33. ^ Hall, pp. 10 and 315

References [edit]

• David Freedberg, "Painting and the Counter-Reformation", from the catalogue to The Age of Rubens, 1993, Boston/Toledo, Ohio, online PDF
• Freedburg, Sidney J. Painting in Italian republic, 1500–1600, tertiary edn. 1993, Yale, ISBN 0300055870
• James Hall, A History of Ideas and Images in Italian Fine art, 1983, John Murray, London, ISBN 0-7195-3971-iv
• Michalski, Sergiusz. Reformation and the Visual Arts: The Protestant Image Question in Western and Eastern Europe, Routledge, 1993, ISBN 0-203-41425-10, 9780203414255 Google Books
• Noble, Bonnie (2009). Lucas Cranach the Elder: Art and Devotion of the German Reformation. University Printing of America. ISBN978-0-7618-4337-5.
• Roy Potent; Fine art and Ability; Renaissance Festivals 1450-1650, 1984, The Boydell Press;ISBN 0-85115-200-7
• Trevor-Roper, Hugh; Princes and Artists, Patronage and Credo at Iv Habsburg Courts 1517-1633, Thames & Hudson, London, 1976, ISBN 0-500-23232-6

Further reading [edit]

• Avalli-Bjorkman, Gorel. "A Bolognese Portrait of a Butcher." The Burlington Magazine 141 (1999).
• Caldwell, Dorigen. "Reviewing Counter-Reformation Art." 5 Feb. 2007 [1].
• Christensen, Carl C. "Art and the Reformation in Germany." The Sixteenth Century Journal Athens: Ohio Up, 12 (1979): 100.
• Coulton, G Chiliad. "Art and the Reformation Reviews." Art Bulletin 11 (1928).
• Honig, Elizabeth. Painting and the Marketplace in Early Modernistic Antwerp. New Oasis: Yale Upwardly, 1998.
• Koerner, Joseph L. The Reformation of the Prototype. London: The Academy of Chicago P, 2004.
• Knipping, John Baptist, Iconography of the Counter Reformation in the netherlands: Sky on Earth ii vols, 1974
• Mayor, A. Hyatt, "The Art of the Counter Reformation." The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 4 (1945).
• Silver, Larry. Peasant Scenes and Landscapes: the Rise of Pictorial Genres in the Antwerp Fine art Market. Philadelphia: University Pennsylvania P, 2006.
• Wisse, Jacob. "The Reformation." In Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000- [ii] (Oct 2002).

External links [edit]

• Review of The Reformation of the Epitome by Joseph Leo Koerner, by Eamon Duffy, London Review of Books

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation

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